Page 2:1
\input basic2.tex[web,als]
tex
als
  caps]
  names]
Page 2:3
\font Y=cmr9 \def\mc{\:Y} % medium caps for names like PASCAL
PASCAL
  identifiers]
Page 2:8
\ctrline{Arthur L. Samuel}
Arthur
Samuel
  Computer]
  Computer]
  Systems]
  carried]
Page 2:15
said, and I quote, ``Artificial In\-tel\-li\-gence is no longer science theory'',
tel
li
gence
  longer]
theory''
  carries]
  closed]
  thoughts]
  growing]
Page 2:24
It is with a profound feeling of personal inadequacy that I address you
inadequacy
  worked]
  concerns]
  colored]
  agreed]
  seemed]
  denied]
  newer]
  [retelling]
  ideas]
  called]
  traditionally]
  developing]
  procedures]
  solving]
  problems]
  solving]
  problems]
  seems]
  sharing]
  seemed]
Page 2:44
In sharing my perspective with you, it seemed that it might be worthwhile
worthwhile
  earlier]
  thoughts]
  earlier]
  comparing]
  earlier]
  expectations]
  clearer]
  remains]
  predictions]
  Recalling]
  involved]
  computer]
Page 2:54
computer and with AI zzzzzzzzzzzzz
zzzzzzzzzzzzz
  Recalling]
  earlier]
  expectations]
  earlier]
  events]
  comes]
Page 2:59
expectations and earlier events comes rather close to reminiscing and I
reminiscing
Page 2:60
hate to start reminiscing as this is supposed to be a mark of age.
reminiscing
  ways]
  getting]
  older]
  likes]
Page 2:63
getting old.  In the first place, the older person likes to reminisce. I
reminisce
  things]
  started]
Page 2:69
Charles Babbage suggested the possibility of having his Analytical Engine
Charles
Babbage
  suggested]
  having]
Analytical
Page 2:70
play chess. It was not until the 1940's, with the emergence of the modern
emergence
  computer]
  attempts]
  making]
Page 2:73
automata of various sorts but most of the time the aim was to fool the
automata
  sorts]
  machines]
  humans]
  assumed]
Page 2:76
the emergence of AI as a discipline to some time in the mid 1940's.
emergence
  circumstances]
  interested]
  realized]
  computer]
Page 2:83
Actually, my involvement in computing began even earlier, in 1924 at MIT
involvement
  computing]
  earlier]
MIT
Page 2:84
when Vannevar Bush got me interested in his Differential Analyser. When I
Vannevar
  interested]
Differential
Analyser
  introduced]
  consisted]
  using]
  modified]
Page 2:86
using a modified watt-hour meter as the integrating device, although Bush
watt
integrating
  planning]
Page 2:87
was even then planning to use a Kelvin Integrating Disk for a
Kelvin
Integrating
  assignments]
  using]
Page 2:91
using the differential analyser to solve the non-linear equations in
differential
analyser
  equations]
Page 2:92
exterior ballistics, which, at the time were solved by the elaborate hand
ballistics
  solved]
Page 2:93
process of numerical integration using log tables and the old-fashioned
integration
  using]
  tables]
  fashioned]
  solving]
  equations]
  desired]
Page 2:95
ac\-curacy on the Differential Analyser, which was then capable of perhaps
ac
curacy
Differential
Analyser
  seemed]
  required]
  computer]
  computers]
  talked]
  computers]
  calculators]
  later]
  talked]
  ideas]
  hints]
Page 2:106
with a few hints as to how the ballistic problem might be solved.
ballistic
  solved]
  suggested]
Page 2:108
The solution method, which Bush suggested and which I imple\-mented, was
imple
  mented]
  equations]
Page 2:110
actual trajectory from a simple parabolic path, and then to solve these
trajectory
parabolic
  equations]
Page 2:111
difference equations on the Differential Analyser.  By this method we were
Differential
Analyser
  desired]
  desired]
  obtained]
  years]
  improved]
Page 2:117
much improved Differential Analysers that were, by then, available.
Differential
Analysers
  Interestingly]
Page 2:118
Interestingly enough, it was the eventual dissatisfaction with this
eventual
Page 2:119
solution method that led Herman Goldstein to press for government support
Herman
Goldstein
  computer]
Page 2:120
of the digital computer work at the University of Pennsylvania.  Contrary
Pennsylvania
  [misconception
  computer]
  appeared]
  calculators]
Page 2:124
field of cryptography.
cryptography
Page 2:126
In retrospect, I often wonder what would have happened had I been
retrospect
  happened]
Page 2:127
successful in deflecting Bush from his interest in the Differential
deflecting
Differential
Page 2:128
Analyser or alternatively, had we been less successful in applying the
Analyser
  alternatively]
  applying]
Page 2:129
differential analyser to the exterior ballistic problem. Just think what
differential
analyser
ballistic
  happened]
  driving]
  started]
  computers]
  matters]
  ideas]
Page 2:137
``The fundamental ideas of behavioristic and Gestalt psychologies
behavioristic
Gestalt
  psychologies]
  attempts]
  chines]
  machines]
  machines]
Page 2:140
integraphs, tide calculators and the like to which the term `thinking
integraphs
  calculators]
  designed]
Page 2:142
perform with mathematical regularity but can `learn' to vary their actions
learn'
Replaced by aearn'

  actions]
  conditions]
  organizing]
  systems]
  computers]
  merits]
  approaches]
  talking]
  machines']
  devices]
  problems]
  coined]
  computer]
  ideas]
  earlier]
  opposing]
  lies]
  computer]
  talking]
  others]
  Laboratories]
  computing]
  facilities]
Page 2:160
facilities and about the feasibility of using the long-life vacuum tubes,
feasibility
Replaced by feasibility

  using]
  tubes]
  worked]
  defined]
  solving]
  problems]
  years]
  moved]
Page 2:165
after I had moved to the University of Illinois that I was again able to
Illinois
  aids]
  calculations]
  computers]
Page 2:167
computers.  My old obsession with solutions of space charge problems with
obsession
  solutions]
  problems]
  conditions]
  persisted]
  computer]
  conditions]
  problems]
Page 2:172
you something about our problems at Illinois during this period.
Illinois
  delays]
  getting]
  started]
  days]
  computer]
Page 2:175
busy running an Electron Device Laboratory but I did have a lot of
Electron
  students]
  tumbling]
  subjects]
  computer]
  components]
Page 2:178
components, building a cathode ray storage tube, developing a
cathode
  developing]
  developing]
Page 2:179
magnetic core storage scheme, developing some special non-sequencial
sequencial
  adder]
  multiplier]
  circuits]
  computer]
  wanted]
  seemed]
  putting]
Page 2:185
together that was not ideal.  The hope was that we could use this interim
interim
  computer]
  authorities]
  making]
  noises]
  [unconventional
  things]
  Computer]
Page 2:190
do with a Computer, someone, I think it was Taube, suggested that I was
Taube
  suggested]
  programming]
Page 2:192
was that I should fulfill Babbage's old dream of having it play chess.  I
Babbage's
  having]
  disheartened]
Page 2:193
was disheartened when I found that Claude Shannon had apparently beaten me
Claude
Shannon
  arranged]
Page 2:194
to the punch, but then, when I had arranged to meet Claude, I learned that
Claude
  reports]
Page 2:196
me to believe.  My talk with Claude did awaken me to the difficulties that
Claude
  difficulties]
  presented]
  happened]
  World's]
  checker]
Page 2:200
match was to be held in the neighboring town, Kankakee, the next spring
Kankakee
  seemed]
  computer]
  months]
  checker]
  checker]
  needed]
Page 2:205
us the publicity that we needed.  How naive can one be?
naive
  started]
  checker]
  using]
  forced]
  needed]
  assigning]
  locations]
  variables]
  assembler]
  invented]
Page 2:211
not yet been invented.  The situation was ideal to highlight the need for
highlight
  thwarted]
  desires]
  computer]
  activities]
  teaching]
Page 2:216
University life in 1949 and go with IBM.  I had written a checker program
IBM
  checker]
  sorts]
  computer]
  confirmed]
  hacker]
  wanted]
  checker]
Page 2:220
checker program to run on an IBM machine.  The program, of
IBM
Page 2:221
course, had to be completely rewritten, first for an interim computer
interim
  computer]
  called]
  conceived]
  implemented]
  faced]
  converting]
Page 2:228
octal form into symbolic notation.  This led me to write a ``Disassembly''
Disassembly''
Replaced by disassembly''

  duties]
  converting]
  programs]
Page 2:233
IBM, in those days did not take kindly to one of their engineers wasting
IBM
  days]
  engineers]
  wasting]
  playing]
  checker]
  dressed]
  efforts]
Page 2:236
efforts up with a certain amount of respectability by adding a learning
respectability
Replaced by respectability

  adding]
  computer]
  adjusted]
  needed]
  routines]
  Later]
  days]
  crews]
  shifts]
  crews]
  wanted]
  machines]
  reports]
  events]
  occured]
  years]
  events]
  events]
Page 2:253
The first event was the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial
Dartmouth
  involved]
Page 2:256
Arti\-fi\-cial Intel\-li\-gence was greatly influenced by this meeting.
Arti
fi
cial
Intel
li
gence
  influenced]
Page 2:257
The name Arti\-fi\-cial Intel\-li\-gence was, of course, coined by John in
Arti
fi
cial
Intel
li
gence
  coined]
  naming]
  ideas]
  occurred]
Page 2:260
research.  The interchange of ideas that occurred at Dartmouth did a great
Dartmouth
Page 2:261
deal to establish AI as a viable subject for continuing research.
viable
Replaced by viable

  continuing]
  Computers]
Page 2:264
Thought'' edited by Feigenbaum and Feldman. This book reprinted twenty
Thought''
  edited]
Feigenbaum
Feldman
  reprinted]
  papers]
  authors]
  editors]
  aspects]
  features]
  papers]
  discussed]
  called]
  toy'']
  problems]
  problems]
  required]
  principles]
Page 2:274
never-the-less, suf\-fi\-cient\-ly well defined that one could measure one's
suf
fi
cient
ly
  defined]
  one's]
Page 2:275
prog\-ress toward meeting some desired goal.  A second feature was the sharp
prog
ress
  desired]
  papers]
  categories]
  solved]
  considered]
  methods]
  tied]
  characteristics]
  computer]
Page 2:281
become the bible of the early workers in the field.
bible
Replaced by bible

  workers]
Page 2:283
It may be instructive to compare a recent publication, ``The Handbook of
Handbook
Page 2:284
Artificial Intelligence'', for which Feigenbaum was again one of the
Intelligence''
Feigenbaum
  authors]
  earlier]
  growing]
  events]
  shaking]
Page 2:288
The third and fourth events, not of earth shaking sig\-nif\-i\-cance, but
sig
nif
cance
  aids]
  papers]
Page 2:290
papers, the first one which was my assessment of the state of AI in 1962,
assessment
Replaced by assessment

  predictions]
  computers]
  called]
  Automation'']
  tempted]
  things]
  ends]
  playing]
  seems]
  newer]
  techniques]
  increasing]
  games]
  problems]
  problems]
  later]
  greater]
Page 2:302
problems later because I have come to attach greater significancs to them
significancs
Replaced by significancs

  revealed]
  approaches]
  problems]
  using]
  Watching'']
  describing]
  using]
Page 2:308
using the phrase ``Back to Aerodynamics'' to head the section describing
Aerodynamics''
  describing]
  softening]
  inquires]
  problems]
  later]
  quoting]
  machines]
  existing]
  ones]
Page 2:316
outperform man in most forms of mental activity. In fact, one suspects
outperform
Replaced by outperform

  forms]
  suspects]
  machines]
  kinds]
  programs]
  machines]
  smarter]
  smarter]
Page 2:321
machine''.  This, I think, is the proper answer to those people
machine''
  decry]
  computers]
Page 2:322
who decry the way that computers are permeating our society and who
permeating
  published]
  called]
Page 2:326
Work'', was an attempt to predict the state of affairs in 1984.  I want to
Work''
  affairs]
  predictions]
  making]
  predictions]
  excerpts]
  predictions]
  computers]
  times]
  computers]
  computers]
  memories]
Page 2:333
computers with large memories [and they have gotten large, in spite of Von
Von
Page 2:334
Neumann's insistence that 1000 words of fast storage was all that would
Neumann's
  words]
  needed]
  computers]
  computers]
  cheaper]
  computers]
  masters]
  computers]
Page 2:341
experience snd that they would be able to converse freely with their
snd
Replaced by and

  masters]
  things]
  computers]
Page 2:347
1. That we would see a dichotomy in the development of very large
dichotomy
  computers]
Page 2:348
computers acting as number crunchers and as data bases with the widespread
crunchers
  bases]
  computers]
  computers]
  terminals]
  bases]
  accounting]
  computer]
  attending]
  automation]
  reached]
  [unrealized]
  predictions]
Page 2:359
As for my unrealized predictions regarding artificial in\-tel\-li\-gence, I
tel
li
gence
  predicting]
  problems]
  solved]
  resides]
  instructions]
  computer]
  assessing]
  problems]
  problems]
  solved]
  years]
  soundness]
  predicted]
  problems]
  solved]
  problems]
  relating]
  solved]
  leads]
  unfolding]
Page 2:372
understanding usually leads to the unfolding of facets of the problem that
facets
  existed]
  happened]
  longer]
  computer]
  communications]
  problems]
  distressing]
Page 2:380
distressing.  What does The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence have to
Handbook
  systems]
  correctness]
Page 2:384
One might question the correctness of this stricture when one notes that
stricture
  notes]
Page 2:385
the third volume of this same handbook devotes some 188 pages, out of the
handbook
  devotes]
  pages]
  pages]
  Inductive]
Page 2:387
Inductive Inference''. Much of this work is really quite good.  An
Inference''
Page 2:388
enbarrassingly large amount of space, however, is used to describe some of
enbarrassingly
  used]
  years]
  superseded]
Page 2:392
The stricture in volume 1 is essentially correct, since it is refering to
stricture
  refering]
  methods]
  programs]
  derived]
  computer]
  programs]
  Systems]
  applications]
Page 2:396
applications.  In fact the stricture appears even more damning when one
stricture
  appears]
  damning]
  considers]
  Systems]
  adopted]
Page 2:399
adopted by practitioners.
practitioners
Replaced by practitioners

  making]
  systems]
  techniques]
  questioning]
  techniques]
  computer]
  restricts]
  responses]
  asking]
  questions]
  having]
  desired]
  treated]
  learns]
  child's]
Page 2:416
order to be able to talk?  Children learn to talk willy-nilly, whether
willy
nilly
  parents]
  Computers]
  desires]
  servants]
  wiring]
  supplying]
  failed]
  failed]
  expectations]
  expectations]
  inflated]
  based]
  problems]
  remains]
  predictions]
Page 2:434
good research, done on AI in general, than I envisioned possible in
envisioned
  Computers]
  files]
  one's]
  differences]
  ordering]
  languages]
Page 2:448
linguistic loyalties although English has become the lingua franca of
linguistic
  loyalties]
lingua
franca
  computer]
  evidenced]
  conducted]
Page 2:450
present conference that is being conducted in English in a German speaking
German
Page 2:457
In the first place there is an apparent inconsistancy in my remarks.  I am
inconsistancy
  remarks]
  advocating]
  deficiencies]
  citing]
  principles]
  problems]
  explained]
  remarking]
  users]
  systems]
  designers]
  systems]
  schemes]
  systems]
  links]
  links]
  headings]
  used]
Page 2:468
under the four headings used in The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence.
Handbook
  headings]
Page 2:469
These headings are: 1. Rote learning, 2.Learning by being told, 3.
Rote
  examples]
Page 2:472
{\bf \noindent Rote Learning}
Rote
Page 2:474
Rote learning was one of the first forms to be studied. As the Handbook
Rote
  forms]
Handbook
  points]
Page 2:475
points out, rote learning is useful only if it it takes less time to
rote
  takes]
  [recompute
  days]
  computer]
Page 2:479
computer at Harvard was constructed and used primarily for the purpose of
Harvard
  constructed]
  used]
  computing]
  tables]
  books]
  offered]
  books]
  used]
  speeds]
  computers]
  easier]
  [recompute
  functions]
  needed]
  [retreive]
Page 2:485
transition state in which key tabular values were frequently stored and
tabular
  values]
  stored]
  used]
Page 2:486
used with interpolation routines, but even this use of stored values has
interpolation
Replaced by interpolation

  routines]
  stored]
  values]
  disappeared]
Page 2:489
So I look on rote learning as ancient history.
rote
  appeared]
  McCarthy's]
  systems]
  followed]
  diverging]
  paths]
Page 2:495
here, future work followed two diverging paths, the one envisioned by
envisioned
  rules]
Page 2:498
behavior, and the second in wich the emphasis has been on the development
wich
Replaced by which

  tools]
  detailed]
  Taker]
  Systems]
  resented]
  devotees]
  Computer]
  Systems'']
  lists]
  references]
  references]
  mentions]
  McCarthy's]
Page 2:507
recent work typified by the work of Mostow, Hayes-Roth, Klahr, and Burge 
typified
Replaced by typified

Mostow
  Hayes]
Roth
Klahr
Burge
  considered]
  McCarthy's]
  ideas]
Page 2:510
By and large, there has been a hiatus in the work on McCarthy's Advice
hiatus
  McCarthy's]
  Taker]
  rectifying]
  tools]
  developed]
  transporting]
Page 2:517
of transporting specific and sometimes abstractively formulated expertise
abstractively
  formulated]
expertise
  computer]
  Systems]
  based]
Page 2:520
based on this work.  I certainly do not want to belittle this work but
belittle
  Examples]
  pages]
Page 2:526
the field, in the Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, then certainly
Handbook
  examples]
  pages]
  Refering]
Page 2:533
Refering to the Handbook, which is my bible on these matters, we note that it
Handbook
bible
  matters]
  leaves]
  [undiscussed]
  received]
  neglected]
  [misconception
  confuses]
  correctness]
  evaluation]
  computers]
  added]
  brings]
  making]
  times]
  methods]
  reallly]
  experiments]
  computer]
  emerging]
  continuing]
  problems]
  variables]
  involved]
  deals]
  neglected]
  reasons]
  discussed]
  predictions]
  computers]
  computers]
  types]
  computers]
  computer]
  smaller]
  computer]
  computer]
  computer]
  bytes]
  one's]
  computer]
  one's]
  computer]
  messages]
  computer]
  systems]
  messages]
  computer]
  communications]
Page 2:579
Video-phone equipment will still be rather bulky and so most people will
Video
  computers]
  computer]
  bytes]
  schemes]
  times]
  computer]
  communicating]
  banks]
  computers]
Page 2:590
all, of course, under suitable protocols which attend to such matters as
protocols
  matters]
  communicating]
  one's]
  computer]
  mentioned]
  earlier]
  computer]
  receiving]
  transmitting]
Page 2:596
video-telephone when this is desired. Since there will still be an
video
  desired]
  printed]
  computer]
  handling]
  facilities]
  printed]
  having]
  computer]
  arriving]
  one's]
  computer]
  operating]
  times]
  messages]
  messages]
  computers]
  powered]
  failures]
  centrally]
  located]
  computers]
  associated]
  files]
  later]
  predicted]
  differing]
  predicted]
  principals]
  currently]
  used]
  pres]
Page 2:611
knowledge engineering principals that are currently being used in pres\-ent
ent
  Systems]
  augmented]
  principles]
  discovered]
  systems]
  systems]
  evening's]
  viewing]
  produced]
Page 2:619
course, since Hollywood will still be commercial) or inquire as to the
Hollywood
  day's]
  figures]
Page 2:620
previous day's production figures for tin in Bolivia---all for the asking
Bolivia
  asking]
  one's]
Page 2:621
via one's remote terminal''.
terminal''
  systems]
  experts]
  acquired]
Page 2:626
gen\-er\-al\-iza\-tions based on this information, will probably still have to be
gen
er
al
iza
tions
  based]
  approved]
  experts]
Page 2:627
approved by a panel of experts before being in\-corp\-or\-at\-ed into the data
corp
  centrally]
  located]
  computers]
  used]
  calculations]
  reached]
  limitations]
  problems]
  solved]
  pieces]
  machines]
  truely]
  problems]
  Newer]
  methods]
  truely]
  memories]
Page 2:637
construct truely large memories so that this will not be a bottleneck.
bottleneck
  Libraries]
  books]
  ceased]
  countries]
  preserved]
Page 2:641
countries except for a few which will be preserved as mu\-se\-ums''
mu
se
ums''
  world's]
Page 2:643
knowledge will be in machine readable form''. 
form''
  Having]
  lived]
  computers]
  years]
  printed]
  books]
  comforting]
  libraries]
  condensed]
  recording]
  used]
  generated]
  processing]
  systems]
  preserved]
  texts]
  having]